Head to head
Frankish’s Illusionism vs Spira’s Non-Duality
Frankish’s Illusionism and Spira’s Non-Duality, compared field by field from their entries in the Atlas.
At a glance
- Frankish’s Illusionism belongs to the Materialism family in Kuhn's Landscape of Consciousness, Spira’s Non-Duality to Idealism.
- Frankish’s Illusionism treats consciousness as emergent; Spira’s Non-Duality treats it as fundamental.
- On AI consciousness, Frankish’s Illusionism says “Possible” and Spira’s Non-Duality says “No”.
- On life after death, Frankish’s Illusionism says “No” and Spira’s Non-Duality says “Yes”.
- On meaning and purpose, Frankish’s Illusionism says “Humanistic only” and Spira’s Non-Duality says “Cosmic/Ultimate”.
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The claim
In brief
Frankish’s IllusionismKeith Frankish holds that conscious experiences are real but not what they seem: the irreducibly subjective ‘phenomenal properties’ or qualia we ascribe to them are an introspective illusion. Introspection builds a simplified, schematic model of the brain’s complex reactions to stimulation, and we mistake that model for direct awareness of inner qualities, so the hard problem gives way to an ‘illusion problem’.
Spira’s Non-DualityThis theory proposes that ultimate reality is a single, infinite, and indivisible pure consciousness (non-duality), from which all objects and individual selves derive their apparently independent existence. It asserts that our essential nature, which is this pure consciousness, transcends the limits and destiny of the physical body and mind.
What consciousness is
Frankish’s IllusionismConscious states are complex functional states of the brain that sustain rich sensory engagement with the world and flexible control of behavior. Their distinctive features are functional, which Frankish calls quasi-phenomenal properties.
Spira’s Non-DualityConsciousness is identified as the single, infinite, and indivisible reality (pure consciousness) from which all apparent objects and individual selves derive their existence.
Big questions
Can AI be conscious?Differ
Frankish’s IllusionismPossibleSince consciousness is a complex functional state, a system with the right reactive and sensory organization could have it, though Frankish does not address machines directly.
Spira’s Non-DualityNoIf consciousness is the singular, non-material ultimate reality, artificial systems (being derived/material objects) cannot achieve true consciousness, only a functional imitation or borrowing of existence from the ultimate reality.
Frankish’s IllusionismNoSince conscious states are functional states of a living brain, they end when the brain stops functioning.
Spira’s Non-DualityYesThe theory explicitly states that our essential nature, being pure consciousness, does not share the limits or destiny of the body and mind, implying survival or continuity beyond biological dissolution.
Frankish’s IllusionismNo position
Spira’s Non-DualityNot neededSince the essential self is fundamentally non-physical, infinite consciousness, digital duplication of the body/mind is unnecessary for the persistence of the essential self.
Frankish’s IllusionismHumanistic onlyFrankish grounds value in what creatures are motivated to seek or avoid and argues that illusionism widens ethical concern to other animals across a graded ‘consciousness space’.
Spira’s Non-DualityCosmic/UltimateConsciousness is the foundation of reality ('the nature of reality') and understanding this non-dual essence is the key to achieving ultimate peace and happiness, providing inherent cosmic purpose.
Nature of mind
Ontology
Frankish’s IllusionismPhysicalism (strong illusionism)
Spira’s Non-DualityOntological Idealism. The theory posits consciousness as the ultimate, singular, fundamental existent.
Mind and body
Frankish’s IllusionismConscious experiences are physically realized functional states. Phenomenal properties are intentional objects, represented but never instantiated, like the impossible objects Nicholas Humphrey compares them to.
Spira’s Non-DualityThe essential nature of the self (consciousness) is held to be independent of the physical body and mind. Physical existence, and all experience, is mediated through the mind, which is derived from the fundamental consciousness.
Fundamental or emergent
Frankish’s IllusionismEmergent
Spira’s Non-DualityPrimitive/Fundamental
Qualia
Frankish’s IllusionismQualia do not exist. Introspection misrepresents brain states, as perception misrepresents some features of the world, and introspective information bound to perception makes external things seem to carry vivid sensory qualities, such as an apple’s redness, that reflect their significance for us.
Spira’s Non-DualityQualia (multiplicity and diversity of experience) are seen as manifestations or derivations of the underlying singular pure consciousness, borrowing their apparent independent existence from it.
How it works
Mechanism
Frankish’s IllusionismThe reactivity schema: introspective systems track the overall psychological impact of stimulation without representing its detail, and this simplified model is mistaken for direct acquaintance with qualities. Frankish borrows Daniel Dennett’s image of a computer’s user illusion, whose icons have no literal counterparts in the machine.
Spira’s Non-DualityNon-Duality, defined by the ultimate identity between the essence of the self and the ultimate reality (pure consciousness).
Where it is
Frankish’s IllusionismDistributed across the brain. The subject of the illusion is the whole organism, and the work of registering and reacting to it is shared among many unconscious subsystems, with no Cartesian theater.
Spira’s Non-DualityUbiquitous/Cosmic. Consciousness is the underlying reality (single, infinite, indivisible) that pervades and underpins all existence.
What it does
Frankish’s IllusionismConscious states guide flexible, intelligent behavior. The illusion itself is made of physical representations and so has causal effects, which may be adaptive, as Nicholas Humphrey argues; this avoids the threat of epiphenomenalism.
Spira’s Non-DualityConsciousness functions as the ontological source of all existence. Achieving the recognition of this pure consciousness is tied to the ultimate goal of finding lasting peace and happiness.
Evidence and criticism
Testability
Frankish’s IllusionismConceptually testable
Spira’s Non-DualitySpeculative/Conceptual. The theory relies on philosophical and spiritual recognition of ultimate reality rather than empirical methods based on third-person observation.
Tests so far
Frankish’s IllusionismFrankish holds that the reactive changes constituting experience are in principle experimentally detectable, which opens the experiences of other creatures to study.
Spira’s Non-DualityNot stated
Criticisms
Frankish’s IllusionismThe central objection, a version of Descartes’ cogito, holds that our own phenomenal states are indubitable data. Galen Strawson argues that illusionism denies the main source of ethical value. Others object that an illusion needs an audience.
Spira’s Non-DualityLike other Idealist theories, it faces the challenge of explaining precisely how the fundamental, non-material consciousness generates or interacts with the apparent physical world and matter.
Sources
Key sources
Frankish’s Illusionism
- Frankish’s Illusionism (Landscape of Consciousness), Keith Frankish (2021)
Spira’s Non-Duality
- Rupert Spira Website: Introduction to Non-Duality (n.d.)